Ain Jalut: The Battle and Its Significance - Dr. Imad al-Din Khalil
[Introduction: The article by Dr. Imad al-Din Khalil explores the Battle of ͑Ain Jālūt, its historical significance, and its broader implications. The surrounding page content provides a detailed account of the battle, emphasizing its military, political, ideological, and civilizational impact. Key Themes:
Ain Jalut: The Battle and Its
Significance
Dr.
Imad al-Din Khalil
In the middle of the year 658 AH
(1260 AD), Hulagu Khan dispatched his envoys from the Levant bearing his
infamous ultimatum to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, Saif al-Din Qutuz.
At the time,
Hulagu stood at the pinnacle of his conquests. The Mongol armies had swept
through the Islamic world like wildfire—toppling fortresses, tearing down
walls, and clearing a path for their relentless advance westward. From the
heartlands of Central Asia to the edges of Sinai, no Islamic authority remained
untouched; those that did not submit willingly were swiftly crushed. The pagan
Mongol sword had subdued every rival, and any head that refused to bow was
promptly severed. Even those who chose self-preservation—turning away in fear,
seeking to avoid confrontation—were not spared. They fell into the intricate
death traps the Mongols laid with cruel precision, tortured and slaughtered as
they struggled in vain to escape.
The fate of
Baghdad was by then well known—engraved in the collective Muslim memory as a
dark chapter of horror and ruin. The city, once the radiant heart of Islamic
civilization, had become a symbol of desolation. The two most prominent Muslim
powers of the East—the Khwarezmian Empire in Persia and Transoxiana, and the
Abbasid Caliphate in Iraq—had been all but annihilated.
For years, a
desperate struggle had raged between the Mongols and the last Khwarezmian
sultan, Jalal al-Din Mingburnu. It was a harrowing, drawn-out conflict that
spanned vast and shifting landscapes: from the steppes of Transoxiana to the
plains of northern India, the shores of the Caspian Sea, the mountains of
northern Iraq, the Jazira region, and the plateaus of Anatolia. Jalal al-Din,
valiant yet ultimately doomed, sought in vain to forge a unified Muslim front
against the Mongol onslaught. But the seeds of division he had sown during his
reign—fostering rivalries and internecine strife—returned to haunt him.
In his final
years, hope slipped from his grasp. Many of his companions abandoned him, and
he was left with a handful of loyalists, wandering in isolation across the
harsh terrain of Diyarbakir. Eyewitnesses recount a ruler broken by sorrow,
numbing his anguish in wine as he fled from the shadows of an inescapable end.
At last, his life was cut short—not by a Mongol warrior, but by a dagger
wielded by a local villager.
The Abbasids
fared no better. Their end came with cataclysmic violence. Baghdad, the grand
capital of Islam, was reduced to ruins, a sobering reminder of the vicissitudes
of history.
What of
the Local Emirates?
The fate of
the local emirates was no better than that of the great Islamic states. Some
rulers, clinging to hope in the face of annihilation, sought appeasement. They
flattered the Mongols, sued for peace, and submitted in humiliation—yet none of
this spared them from the merciless swords of the invaders. Others chose
dignity over subjugation. They resisted, as honor demanded, and suffered
unspeakable horrors at the hands of an enemy who had mastered the art of
terror.
One such
ruler was al-Kāmil al-Ayyūbī, Emir of Mayyāfāriqīn in Diyarbakir. His end was a
grim testament to Mongol brutality: they carved his flesh into pieces and
forced him to eat it until he died. Then, severing his head, they mounted it
atop a spear and paraded it across the Levant to the sounds of drummers and
singers. His mutilated remains were later suspended in a net from one of the
gates of Damascus, where they reportedly hung until the city was liberated from
Mongol control.
In Mosul,
King al-Ṣāliḥ suffered no less gruesomely. The Mongols smeared him in oil and
wrapped him in wool, leaving him to rot under the sun. After a week, the oil
turned rancid and attracted worms that devoured his flesh. He languished in
agony for an entire month before dying. His three-year-old son was torn in half
on the banks of the Tigris, a monstrous act committed before the eyes of
stunned onlookers.
These are but
fragments of the larger nightmare that swept the Islamic East. The cities of
the Jazīrah and northern Syria witnessed scenes of devastation, but they
represented only a portion of the slaughter and destruction inflicted by the
Mongols across Muslim lands.
Who Could
Possibly Write an Obituary for Islam?
The historian
Ibn al-Athīr, who died in 630 AH (1232 AD), bore witness only to the early
stages of the Mongol advance. In 617 AH (1220 AD), he recorded the beginning of
the catastrophe. One can only imagine what he might have written had he lived
to see the full extent of the destruction that followed.
He wrote:
“For years, I
hesitated to write about this calamity, overwhelmed by its scale and agony. I
would take up the pen, only to retreat, unable to confront the horror. I asked
myself: who can bear to write the obituary of Islam and the Muslims? Who can
endure recounting such devastation? I wish my mother had never given birth to
me, I wish I had died before witnessing it, and had been forgotten. Yet my
companions urged me to record what had happened. I wavered—until I realized
that silence would benefit no one. So I write of the greatest catastrophe, the
most grievous disaster ever to strike humanity in general and the Muslims in
particular.
If someone
were to say that since the creation of Adam, humanity has never suffered a
tragedy greater than this, they would not be exaggerating. No historical event,
not even remotely, compares.
Among the
calamities of the past, they recall how Nebuchadnezzar devastated the
Israelites and destroyed the Holy Temple—but even that pales in comparison to
what these accursed invaders have done to cities far greater than Jerusalem.
And what are the Israelites compared to the multitudes who have now perished? A
single city today has lost more lives than all of Israel.
I fear no
calamity of this scale will be seen again—at least not until the final hour.
The Mongols spared no one. They slaughtered men, women, and children; they
ripped unborn infants from their mothers’ wombs.
Truly, to God
we belong, and to Him we shall return. There is no power and no might except
with God, the Most High, the Almighty.”
Internal
Collapse
The swift and
overwhelming Mongol invasion granted them a formidable psychological
weapon—terror that struck their enemies from within, defeating them before
swords even flashed before their eyes. It was the sharpest of blades,
paralyzing movement itself. The Muslims of that time suffered from complete or
partial paralysis, losing the legs they walked on and the hands they fought
with. The accounts recorded by Ibn al-Athir paint a tragic yet almost
"caricatured" picture of the state many Muslims had fallen into.
He wrote, "I
have heard tales so astonishing that one might think them fabricated—stories of
the fear that God placed in people's hearts at the mere mention of the Mongols.
It was said that a single Mongol warrior would enter a village or street
teeming with people and proceed to kill them one by one, as no one dared lift a
hand against him. I was even told of an incident where a Mongol soldier
captured a man but lacked a weapon to kill him. He ordered the man, 'Lay your
head on the ground and do not move.' The man obeyed, and the Mongol walked
away, fetched a sword, and then returned to execute him!
Another man
recounted: 'I was traveling with seventeen companions when a lone Mongol
horseman intercepted us. He commanded us to tie each other up. My companions
began obeying, and I said to them, "This is only one man. Why don't we
kill him and flee?" But they replied, "We fear their wrath." I
told them, "He means to kill us right now! If we fight, perhaps God will
grant us escape." By God, no one dared to act—so I took a knife, killed
him, and we ran, saving ourselves!'"
The
Challenge
Amidst this
political and psychological turmoil—under the glare of blood-soaked swords and
the echoes of battles stirred by an endless tide of Mongol cavalry—Hulagu sent
his infamous message to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, Saif al-Din Qutuz. The
tyrant was well aware of the deep-seated terror and defeatism that had spread
across the Islamic world over recent decades, and he carefully chose his words
accordingly:
"From
the King of Kings, East and West—the Great Khan, in the name of God, the
Spreader of Earth and the Raiser of Heaven. Let the victorious King Qutuz and
all his emirs and subjects in Egypt and its surroundings be informed: We are
God's soldiers upon His land, created from His wrath, unleashed upon those who
have incurred His anger. You have witnessed our power in other lands, and you
should take heed. Learn from the fate of others and submit to us before the
veil is lifted, regret overtakes you, and error consumes you.
You have
heard how we conquered nations, cleansed the land of corruption, and
slaughtered most of its people. You flee, while we pursue. What land will
shelter you? What road will save you? What city will protect you? There is no
escape from our swords, no refuge from our terror. Our horses are swift, our
arrows pierce, our swords strike like lightning, and our hearts stand like
mountains. Our numbers are like grains of sand—fortresses cannot stop us,
armies cannot hinder us, and prayers against us go unheard. Those who seek war
with us regret it. Those who submit to our terms find peace. If you obey our
command, you shall share in our fortune, and bear our burdens equally. But if
you resist—you will perish. Do not bring destruction upon yourselves with your
own hands, for warnings have been given. Do not prolong your response—hasten
your reply before war ignites its flames and its embers fall upon you. In such
a case, no dignity, honor, protection, or sanctuary will remain for you. You
will suffer the greatest calamity and your lands will be left desolate. We have
been fair in sending this message, we have awakened you with this warning. Now,
our only aim is you."
“Let Those
Who Choose Jihad Follow Me!”
Hulagu’s
message was more than a threat—it was the final challenge to the last standing
Islamic authority. The fate of an entire civilization, forged over centuries,
now hung on a single decision.
All logic
pointed toward surrender. Submission seemed inevitable, perhaps even rational.
But faith
moves by a different rhythm. It breathes life into paralyzed limbs and opens
eyes blinded by despair. Where others see darkness, it glimpses the distant
glow of dawn.
It is in such
moments that the true mettle of leadership is tested. Great leaders rise to
meet history’s fiercest storms—not merely to endure them, but to shape them,
turning calamity into a turning point.
Sultan Saif
al-Din Qutuz read Hulagu’s ultimatum and summoned his emirs. Their deliberation
would mark a defining hour in Islamic history.
The
Council of War
Qutuz:
What do you propose?
Nasir
al-Din Qimri: Hulagu—grandson of Genghis Khan—commands power and terror
from the borders of China to the gates of Egypt. Seeking peace with him is no
disgrace. But placing trust in his promises is folly. He has no regard for
treaties or honor. He killed the Caliph of Baghdad and his court, despite
offering oaths of safety. If we go to him, we will meet the same end.
Qutuz:
Then what remains? From Diyarbakir and Rabia to the Levant, only ashes and
grief remain. From Baghdad to Byzantium, devastation stretches unopposed—its
people slaughtered, its fields and flocks destroyed. If we rise to resist,
Egypt may suffer the same fate. We face three paths: peace, battle, or exile.
Exile is impossible—the Maghreb lies too far.
Qimri:
And peace is useless, for their oaths are worthless!
Several
Emirs: We do not have the strength to resist. Command what you see fit.
Qutuz:
Then I choose battle. If we are victorious, it is by the grace of God. If we
fall, let history record that we did not stand idle in the face of
annihilation.
Al-Zahir
Baybars: I advise that we execute their envoys and march directly to face
Kitbuqa. Whether we win or lose, we will have fulfilled our duty.
Unanimously,
the emirs supported the decision. Qutuz did not hesitate. He ordered the
execution of Hulagu’s envoys and displayed their heads above Bab Zuweila for
all to see. It was a declaration of defiance—an open challenge to tyranny.
Then, he gave the command to prepare for war, proclaiming: “Jihad in the
path of God, in defense of the religion of His Messenger, peace be upon him.”
The
Decisive Day
The Islamic
army, under the command of Sultan Saif al-Din Qutuz, marched across the Sinai
Peninsula and advanced along the coastal route toward Gaza. At the head of the
vanguard rode the seasoned commander, al-Zahir Baybars. In Gaza, a small Mongol
force led by Baydar attempted to hold ground. Baydar quickly dispatched word to
Kitbuqa—the Mongol general entrusted by Hulagu with the continuation of the
western conquest—alerting him to the Muslim army’s movements.
But Baydar’s
warning came too late. The Mamluks struck swiftly and overwhelmed the
outnumbered garrison before reinforcements could arrive.
Kitbuqa,
stationed in Baalbek, began preparations to descend into the Jordan Valley via
the Sea of Galilee. However, his advance was unexpectedly delayed. In Damascus,
a rebellion erupted—Muslims rose against Mongol rule and their allied local Christian
factions, destroying their homes and churches. The Mongols were forced to
divert forces to quell the uprising and restore control.
Kitbuqa
crossed the Jordan River and advanced toward eastern Galilee. In response,
Sultan Qutuz swiftly redirected his forces southeast, passing through Nazareth
and arriving at Ain Jalut on the 14th of Ramadan (September 2, 1260).
At dawn the
next day, the Mongol army—bolstered by Georgian and Armenian contingents—moved
forward, unaware that the Mamluk forces were lying in wait nearby. Confident in
his numerical advantage, Qutuz concealed his main army in the surrounding
hills, revealing only the vanguard led by Baibars.
Kitbuqa took
the bait, launching a full-scale assault on the Muslim troops before him.
Baibars feigned retreat, drawing the Mongols into the hills. Suddenly, the
Mamluks sprang their trap, surrounding the Mongol forces and igniting a fierce
battle. At a critical moment, the Mamluk lines faltered, prompting Qutuz to
enter the fray himself and rally his soldiers.
The tide soon
turned decisively. Within hours, the Mamluks crushed the core of the Mongol
army. Kitbuqa was captured in the chaos—his defeat signaling the end of the
battle. He was bound in chains, brought before Sultan Qutuz, and executed.
In the days
that followed, Qutuz entered Damascus to a hero’s welcome. The Mongol deputies,
who had ruled the city for over seven months, fled in haste. Baybars pursued
the remnants northward, scouring the land of Mongol presence, killing or
capturing large numbers. Within a month, he reached and liberated Aleppo—their
final northern stronghold.
Thus, all of
Greater Syria and Palestine was restored to Muslim control.
Though Hulagu
later dispatched reinforcements to reclaim Aleppo, they achieved nothing more
than a brief siege. After forty days and the massacre of many civilians in
vengeance for Kitbuqa’s death.
Key
Moments from the Battle of Ain Jalut
- Sultan Al-Muzaffar Qutuz issued a
sweeping call to arms, ordering all governors to mobilize their troops. He
warned that any failure to comply would be met with punishment. As night
fell, the Sultan rode out at the head of his army, banners raised high, declaring:
“I will face the Tatars myself!” Reluctantly, the commanders
followed him into battle, stirred by his resolve.
- In a bold political move, Qutuz swore
an oath to the Crusader leaders in Palestine: if any among them attacked
Muslim forces while they were confronting the Mongols, he would turn back
and fight the Crusaders before continuing his campaign against the Tatars.
- The Sultan then gathered his
commanders for a final council. With deep emotion, he reminded them of the
Tatars' atrocities—massacres, mass enslavement, the destruction of cities
and mosques. He urged them to rise in defense of Islam and rescue Syria
from annihilation, warning of the wrath of God if they failed. Moved to
tears, the emirs pledged to fight with unwavering courage.
- When the battle erupted, a segment of
the Muslim army faltered under the pressure of the Mongol assault. At that
critical moment, Qutuz cast aside his helmet and cried out: “Wā Islāmāh! (O Islam!)” He then
led a fierce counterattack with unwavering resolve. Inspired by his
courage, the troops rallied, and God granted them victory.
- The Mamluk army pursued the fleeing
Tatars to Bisan, where another brutal engagement ensued. Many
high-ranking Mongol commanders were killed, and the enemy ranks were
decimated. In the chaos, the Muslim soldiers briefly faltered once more.
Qutuz again raised his voice:
“Wā Islāmāh! O God, grant victory to Your servant Qutuz against the Tatars!”
He repeated this cry three times, each louder than the last. With the final push, the Muslims claimed another victory. Qutuz dismounted, pressed his face to the earth in gratitude, and offered prayers before riding forward once again. The victorious army returned to camp, laden with spoils. - Qutuz immediately dispatched a message
to Damascus, announcing Allah’s triumph over the Tatars—the first
such proclamation to reach the city. The people erupted in celebration.
Rage turned toward the local Christian collaborators who had aided the
Mongols during their brief rule: mobs destroyed their homes, killed
several known conspirators, and forced others into hiding. These allies
had previously incited rebellions, desecrated mosques, paraded with crosses,
and poured wine in the streets in acts of provocation.
- News of Kitbuqa’s death and the
catastrophic defeat infuriated Hulagu Khan. It was the first time
Mongol forces had suffered such a staggering loss in their westward
expansion.
- After securing victory, Sultan Qutuz
led his army into Damascus, where a weary and disillusioned
populace greeted him with tears and celebration. Having lost hope of
salvation from the Tatars, they now hailed their deliverer. As a
demonstration of justice, Qutuz ordered the execution of prominent
collaborators who had sided with the Mongols during the occupation.
A poet
commemorated the moment:
Infidelity
perished across all of Sham,
And Islam
revived from its waning calm.
By the just
and victorious king it rose,
The sword of
Islam, where glory flows.
A sovereign
strong, with purpose and might,
In his wisdom
and steel, we found our light.
Gratitude for
him is a sacred decree,
Endless as
prayer, for all to see.
The
Numbers That Allah and His Messenger Desire
It is no
exaggeration to say that the Battle of Ain Jalut was a pivotal
confrontation—militarily, politically, ideologically, and civilizationally.
Here, in the
heart of Palestine—nearly a century after the epochal Battle of Hattin—history
staged another decisive duel between two opposing worldviews: Islam and
paganism, civilization and barbarism, moral values and moral decay. The Muslim
victory marked the triumph of faith over disbelief, of order over chaos, and of
values over lawlessness.
This blessed
battle revived the Muslim spirit. It rekindled confidence, renewed faith in
divine support, and restored the belief that setbacks can be overcome—even
after nearly reaching the brink of collapse. It lifted the Muslim ummah once
more to the stature and strength that befit its role in the world.
Here, too, we
see a clear equation—one that yields a just outcome only when its two sides are
held in perfect balance: taking the necessary means and maintaining deep,
unwavering faith in Allah and in the justice of the Muslim cause. Without this
equilibrium, neither victory nor success can be attained. No further proof or
debate is needed, for the long arc of Islamic history offers dozens, even
hundreds or thousands, of examples affirming this truth—none more striking than
the Battle of Ain Jalut.
The English
historian Steven Runciman, in his work The Crusades, writes:
“The
Battle of Ain Jalut is one of the most decisive battles in history. It is
certain that had the Mongols quickly dispatched a large army after the defeat,
they could have compensated for their loss. However, the course of history did
not allow the decision at Ain Jalut to be reversed. The victory achieved by the
Mamluks saved Islam from the most dangerous threat it had ever faced. Had the
Mongols penetrated deep into Egypt, no major Muslim power would have remained
east of the Maghreb. While Muslims in Asia were numerous enough to prevent
complete extinction, they would no longer have formed the ruling class. If
Kitbuqa—the Christian Mongol general—had prevailed, Mongol sympathy for
Christianity would have grown. For the first time since the pre-Islamic
dominance of the major sects, Christians would have held power again. But it is
futile to speculate. The historian must narrate only what actually occurred.
The Battle of Ain Jalut established Mamluk rule in Egypt as the dominant power
in the Near East for the next two centuries, until the rise of the Ottoman
Empire. The strengthening of Islam and the decline of Christian influence
eventually led the remaining Mongols in western Asia to embrace Islam. This
battle also hastened the fall of the Crusader states, as the victorious
Muslims—just as the leader of the Teutonic Knights had warned—became resolved
to purge their lands of the enemies of their faith once and for all.”[1]
Runciman
stops short, however, of acknowledging that the conversion of Mongols in Western
Asia to Islam was not merely a consequence of living among Muslims. Rather, it
was due to Islam’s inherent capacity to attract, influence, and integrate,
and its enduring ability to transform and assimilate even its former enemies.
Regardless,
this historic victory secured a strategic unity between Egypt and Syria—a
unity that would prove essential in Islam’s ongoing struggle against its
historical adversaries. This unification became a defensive shield against the
Mongol onslaught and enabled Muslims to confront and push back the Crusader
presence from Islamic lands.
There is
no path forward but unity
This was the
same vision pursued by Imad al-Din Zengi and his son Nur al-Din
Mahmoud, and the very foundation upon which Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi
built his triumphs against the Crusaders and liberated Jerusalem. Once again,
Ain Jalut reaffirmed this principle, offering Muslims a renewed foundation from
which to confront their foes—giving them the power to present a stark choice: submit
to justice under Islam or retreat to where they came from.
The battle
filled the dangerous vacuum left by the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate
and the disintegration of the Seljuk Empire. In its aftermath, the
emerging Mamluk leadership rose to the challenge and began to rebuild what had
been lost, becoming the torchbearers of Islam’s resilience and revival.
The
Civilizational Dimension
Some
scholars—such as Brown—argue that the Battle of Ain Jalut
ultimately benefited Europe by preserving its civilization. This view holds
merit. The Mongols harbored ambitions to invade and devastate Europe, but their
defeat at Ain Jalut, along with other contributing factors, discouraged them
from pursuing their expansion westward.
More
importantly, the battle safeguarded the future of Islamic civilization,
enabling it to recover from the devastation inflicted upon Baghdad. In Egypt,
the Levant, and the Maghreb, Islamic culture experienced a renaissance,
producing new and enduring contributions in various intellectual and artistic
fields. Contrary to the claim that the Islamic world entered a prolonged era of
darkness following the fall of Baghdad, the emergence of towering scholars like
Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Taymiyyah, Abu al-Fida, al-Suyuti, al-Sakhawi,
Ibn al-Qayyim, and al-Jazari—among many others—testifies to the
continuing vitality and creativity of Islamic civilization during this period.
It Is Time
to Learn from History
Islamic
history is rich with decisive battles that shaped the destiny of the ummah,
beginning with the Battle of Badr, where Allah established His truth
over falsehood and anchored His new message on Earth. Among these great turning
points, Ain Jalut remains one of the most significant and unique.
It occurred
during a time when the storm of paganism, allied with Crusader forces,
threatened to extinguish the light of monotheism. The battle met force
with force, resisted the sword of Satan with the sword of Allah, and
demonstrated—through its resounding victory—that true faith, when paired
with strategic insight and meticulous planning, is capable of achieving the
impossible.
Today, as the
forces of materialism, Zionism, and neo-colonialism once again unite in a
determined effort to suppress Islam—its creed, law, people, civilization, and
nations—
If there is
one enduring lesson to draw from Ain Jalut, it is this: faith, confidence,
determination, and steadfast resolve remain the keys to overcoming even the
most daunting adversity. That, in itself, is a profound truth for those who
seek to study history with sincerity and depth. It is time to learn from
history.
*This article
was originally published in Arabic in Al-Ummah Magazine, Issue 9,
Ramadan, 1401 AH
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Source of map:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4198992
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